Kingdoms, Kings and an Early Republic

Earlier, leaders were chosen by the people.
Later, some men became rulers by conquering lands (through wars).
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice): A ritual where a horse was let loose to wander freely; the area it passed through had to accept the ruler’s power or fight.

Janapadas
- The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas.
- The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down.
- They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.
- They made earthen pots.
  - Grey Ware: these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns.
- Some janapadas: Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura and Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh).
Mahajanapadas: Larger and stronger kingdoms.
- About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas.
- Had a capital city.
- Many of these were fortified. Made up of wood, brick or stone. These are built because
  - To protect from attack.
  - To control more easily
  - To show how rich and powerful they are
- The new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year.
- Payment was done by punch marked coins.
- Examples: Magadha, Vajji, Kosala.

Ploughshares:. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. .
Irrigation: New techniques like wells, tanks, and canals helped grow more crops.

Magadha became most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.
Many rivers flows through Magadha such as Ganga and son
Reasons for power:
- Fertile land
- Water supplies
- Transport
- Iron mines
- Elephants from forests were used in wars.
Important ruler: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda
Mahapadma Nanda extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent.
Capital: early- Rajagirha (Rajgir) later- Pataliputra (patna)

Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror.
He conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas.
He didn’t move further because of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants

Vajji had its capital at Vaishali (in Bihar).
Republic (Gana/Sangha): Ruled by a group of leaders, not a single king.
In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was known as a raja.
These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate.
Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas or sanghas.
Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers,
Vajjis is mentioned in Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha.

Athens forms democracy, which lasted for about 200 years.
All free men over the age of 30 were recognised as full citizens.
There was an assembly that met at least 40 times a year to decide on important matters.
All citizens could attend these meetings. Appointments for many positions were made through lottery.
women were not considered citizens.
foreigners, who lived and worked in Athens as merchants and crafts persons did not have rights as citizens.
slaves in Athens, who worked in mines, fields, households and workshops. They too were not treated as citizens.