In the Earliest Cities - iSTUDYNCERT.com

First Cities: Around 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities were built in the north-western part of the subcontinent.
Called the Harappan Civilization (first site found was Harappa in present-day Pakistan).
Other Important Sites: Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhi Garhi.

A special tank, call the Great Bath was built.
Lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar.

Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.

Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store houses.

Town Planning:
- Well-planned cities with roads laid out in a grid pattern.
- Roads cut each other at right angles.
- Cities were divided into two parts:
  - Citadel (higher part): for rulers and important buildings.
  - Lower Town (lower part): for ordinary people.
Drainage System:
- Advanced drainage system.
- Drains were covered and connected to each house.
Houses:
- Built with baked bricks.
- Mostly two-storied.
- Houses had courtyards, rooms, bathrooms, and wells.

People who knew how to write.
Helped to prepare the seal, and perhaps wrote on other material that have not survived.

Most of the things are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
Cotton cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
- Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.
Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience.

Raw materials: Substances used to make finished goods.
Some materials were available locally; others were brought from distant places:
- Copper from Rajasthan and Oman.
- Tin from Afghanistan and Iran.
- Gold from Karnataka.
- Precious stones from Gujarat and Iran and Afghanistan.
Tin, mixed with copper to produce bronze.

Plough, made of wood was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
As the region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form irrigation may have been used.
The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo.
In the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.

Located on Khadir Beyt int the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil
Unlike other Harappan cities, Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held.
Large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood.
- This is unique, as generally Harappan writing has been found on small objects such as seals.

The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.
It was situated near areas where raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
Many seals and sealings (the impression of seals on clay) were found in this storehouse
workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.

Harappan cities started declining around 3900 years ago.
Possible reasons:
- Drying up of rivers.
- Deforestation and loss of fertile land.
- Natural disasters like floods.
- People moved to smaller villages.

Around 5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt.
These kings sent armies to distant lands to get gold, silver, ivory, timber, and precious stones.
They also built huge tombs, known as pyramids.
When they died, the bodies of kings were preserved and buried in these pyramids.
These carefully preserved bodies are known as ‘mummies’.
A large number of objects were also buried with them. These included food and drink, clothes, ornaments, utensils, musical instruments, weapons and animals.
Sometimes even serving men and women were buried with the rulers.