Vital Villages, Thriving Towns

The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago.
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials.
Used in clearing forest (Axes) and iron ploughshare(Agriculture).
New tools and systems:
- Iron tools: Ploughshare used to turn the soil.
- Irrigation: Wells, tanks, and canals used to water crops.

Tamil Region
- Vellalar: Large landowners.
- Uzhavar: Ordinary ploughmen.
- Kadaisiyar and Adimai: Landless labourers and slaves.
Northern part
- Grama Bhojaka: Village headman, often the largest landowner; responsible for tax collection, law enforcement, and justice.
- Grihapatis: Independent farmers with smaller landholdings.
- Dasa Karmakara: Landless labourers working on others’ fields

Composed around 2300 years ago.
Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature.
They were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams).
held in the city of Madurai

Stories
- Sangam literature (Tamil), Jataka tales (Buddhist).
- Jatakas were probably composed by ordinary people, and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
Travellers
- Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them.
- An unknown sailor has described the Barygaza port (Greek name Bharuch)
  - Import- wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold, and silver coins.
  - Exports- plants from Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes.
Sculpture
- Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples’ lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest.
Archaeology
- Archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other.
- These are known as ring wells.
- These seem to have been used as toilets .

Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins.
The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch marked coins.

The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches.
These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE

Important settlement for more than 2500 years.
Around 2000 years ago Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas.
Located at the crossroads of two major trade routes.
- From northwest to the east and from north to south
Religious centre for Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism.
it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna.
Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura.

archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent.

Shrenis: Guilds or associations of craftspersons and merchants.

Coastal town near present-day Puducherry.
Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
Roman pottery, glassware, and beads found – shows trade with Roman Empire.
pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy
Founding at site
- Amphorae- tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil.
- Arretine Ware- stamped red-glazed pottery, named after a city in Italy.
- Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.

spread across Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.
Augustus, one of the most important emperors, who ruled about 2000 years ago.
said that he found Rome a city of brick, and made it into a city of marble.
He, and later rulers, built temples and palaces.
They also built amphitheatres- open arenas surrounded by tiers of seats- where citizens could watch all kinds of shows, and public baths, where people met and relaxed.
Huge aqueducts – channels to supply water – were built to bring water to the city – for the baths, fountains and toilets.